Works Cited
Banegas, Diane. “A Crowded World.” National Science Foundation. N.p., 18 Dec. 2010. Web. 14 Sept. 2010. <www.nsf.gov...discoveries/disc_summ.jsp?cntn_id=112875&org=NSF>.
This article describes the research method used by Paul Torrens, associate professor in the School of Geographical Sciences at Arizona State University, to study crowd behavior. The article also explains general characteristics of crowd behavior, stating that crowds can potentially negatively change an individual. Lack of pre-existing data forced Torrens and his colleagues to base their research off existing crowd videos, artificial agents, surveys conducted by the researchers, and case studies of humans and animals.
Blinkhorn, Martin. “The Challenge of Democracy.” Mussolini and Fascist Italy. New York, New York: Routledge, 2006. 6-7. Google Book Search. Web. 30 Sept. 2010.
Blinkhorn, a Professor Emeritus of Lancaster University, uses this section to establish the historical setting of pre-fascist Italy, noting several factors that led to the beginning of the fascist regime. These factors include backwards economic progress, the creation of a lower-middle class that desired to distance itself from the proletariat, and the widening gap between northern and southern Italy due to northern modernization.
“Communism .” Def. 1. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Feb. 2011.
This definition of communism, provided by Merriam-Webster, describes the social, political, and economic circumstances of fascism. Used to contrast fascism with communism, this source is valuable in gaining an understanding of the politics Mussolini vowed to protect Italy from.
DiLorenzo, Thomas J. Economic Fascism . Tuscon : Association of American Physicians and Surgeons, 1995. N. pag. AAPS Online . Web. 17 Mar. 2011.
This pamphlet, written by Thomas DiLorenzo, discusses the economic side of fascism. After listing and describing several characteristics of fascist economic policy, DiLorenzo comes to a chilling conclusion. He believes that “virtually all of the specific economic policies advocated by the Italian and German fascists of the 1930s have also been adopted in the United States in some form, and continue to be adopted to this day,” and that these policies are merely “sugar- coated with deceptive rhetoric about their alleged desire only to ‘save’ capitalism.”
Ebenstein, William, and Edwin Fogelman. “Fascism .” Today’s Isms. Englewood Cliffs : Prentice-Hall, 1985. 99-126. Print.
This book discusses various aspects of Fascism, focusing heavily on the social conditions that allow fascism to flourish and the psychological characteristics of its citizens. The analysis supplied by Ebenstein and Fogelman suggests that Fascism thrives in places where the most recent government was a weak democracy, and the citizens generally cling to fascism due to the protection and status privileges it offers. As well as a general overview of fascism, this text supplies study of several examples of fascism, including Germany, Italy, and Spain.
Faiola, Anthony. “Italy’s Crackdown on Gypsies Reflects Rising Anti-immigrant Tide in Europe.” Washington Post [Washington, DC] 12 Oct. 2010: n. pag. Web. 21 Oct. 2010.
In this article, Anthony Faiola describes the increase in anti-immigrant sentiment throughout Europe. Italy has declared a “Gypsy Emergency” in response to this trend, and observes have called this campaign to remove gypsy immigrants as “the most intense wave of anti-immigration sentiment to wash over Western Europe in years.” Members of Italian society, from officials to voters, are blaming gypsies for crime, disturbing Italian traditions, and prostitution, among other offenses. The inability to allow diversity in Italian society and the forced removal of immigrants such as gypsies creates strong similarities between current and Fascist Italy.
“Fascism.” The Hutchinson Dictionary of Ideas. 2004. SIRS Renaissance. Web. 9 Sept. 2010. <sks.sirs.comcgi-bin/hst-article-display?id=SMD1570H-0-3939&artno=0000077477&type=ART&shfilter=U&key=&title=Fascism&res=Y&ren=Y&gov=Y&lnk=N&ic=Y>.
This article describes the Italian fascist regime which was in place between 1922 and 1943. An explanation of the social conditions of pre-fascist societies is given, suggesting that Fascism was a “common response to the disappointment felt in most countries after World War I, and was strongest in those countries which had suffered psychologically the most.” As well as analyzing the sociological aspects, the text examines the governmental structure and ideology of Italy’s fascist regime.
Fisher, Linda, and Maria Pia Di Bella. “Mussolini and Italy.” Cornell Institute for Digital Collections. Cornell University Library, Jan. 1999. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
Linda Fisher, media artist and web designer on staff at Cornell University, and Maria Pia Di Bella of the Centre National de Recherche Scientifique in Paris provide a description of Mussolini’s regime, focusing on three aspects: form of authority, death and transition, and consequences. The “Consequences” section, coupled with several photographs, describes in brief the struggle of democratic progression in Italy after the end of Mussolini’s rule.
Follain, John. “Italy needed fascism, says the new Duce.” The Sunday Times 11 May 2008: n. pag. Times Online . Web. 21 Feb. 2011.
In this article, John Follain discusses the common belief that Gianni Alemanno, the mayor of Rome, is a fascist. Although once a neo-fascist and the leader of the neo-fascist Italian Social Movement, Alemanno denies these claims, saying that he simply supported fascism because of its positive effects on Italy. Concluding the article is a quote from Alemanno in a last assertion of his discontinued involvement from his fascist past: “it would be impossible for a fascist to be elected mayor of Rome. Rome is a city that has solid democratic roots and that respects everyone. The Romans are not mad and neither am I.”
“The Glory of Berlusconi .” Economist 18 Dec. 2010: 129. Print.
This article, published in an English-language weekly news and international affairs publication, describes the dominance of the Italian media firm Mediaset, a firm that is owned by Italian Prime Minister Silvio Berlusconi. Television is “by far the most powerful medium” in Italy, and through his political power Berlusconi has hindered other media firms, ensuring the sole success of his own. The political control of the media draws similarities to Italy’s past fascist propaganda. After several charts displaying Mediaset’s dominance in Italian media, this article concludes that Sky Italia, Mediaset’s top competitor, remains a dangerous and unrelenting challenger.
Gregor, Anthony James. “The Belief System of the First Fascism.” Young Mussolini and the Intellectual Origins of Fascism. London, England: University Of California Press, 1979. 207-220 . Google Book Search. Web. 30 Sept. 2010.
Gregor, a Professor of Political Science at the University of California, Berkeley, uses this section of the book to describe the general beliefs of the fascist system established by Italy’s Mussolini. Gregor discusses many aspects of Mussolini’s fascism, but focuses on the belief that in order for the regime to succeed, nationalism was necessary, and traditional beliefs of class separation had to be rejected. Gregor explains that Mussolini used his experiences in war to understand group psychology, which was essential in his efforts of mass mobilization. Research to prepare this book was gathered from a variety of sources cited in the bibliography, and related works include several books written on the topic of fascism, such as “Fascist Ego” by William Tucker.
Horowitz, Irving Louis. “A Historical Introduction to Political Sociology.” Foundations of Political Sociology. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Transaction Publishers, 1999. 3-9 . Google Book Search. Web. 30 Sept. 2010.
Horowitz begins this section by explaining the goal of sociology: “to explain the relationship between the basic social variables of class, caste, ethnicity and race and how they intersect and interpenetrate the key political variables of power, authority, sovereignty and representation.” He proceeds to explain the two competing historical beginnings of political sociology, the period of the philosophies and the period of Rousseau. Although no direct conclusion is reached, the author seems to cast the ideas of Rousseau in a favorable light as compared to the philosophies, suggesting possible bias.
“Italy Starts Controversial Plan to Fingerprint Gypsies.” USA Today 3 July 2008: n. pag. Web. 19 Dec. 2010.
This article notes the recent actions taken by Italian authorities in order to fight crime and identify illegal immigrants for expulsion. The authorities, explains the article, have begun to fingerprint thousands of Gypsies located in nomad camps across the country, sparking accusations of racism by human rights advocates. The EU Social Affairs Commissioner, Vladimir Spidla, stated “it is clear that in Europe it would be impossible to grant rights to certain citizens and not grant them to others based in their ethnic origin.” Italians “have had a long history of distrust of Gypsies,” a characteristic which these recent actions bring to light.
Lukacs, John. “ BACK FROM THE DEAD: BENITO MUSSOLINI .” New York Times Magazine 24 July 1994: 14-17. SIRS Knowledge Source . Web. 17 Mar. 2011.
In this article published in the New York Times Magazine, John Lukacs discusses his viewpoint on whether or not fascism is returning to Italy. Although he admits that historical conditions repeat themselves, he believes that “the differences [between past conditions are current conditions] are greater than the similarities.” Lukacs ends the article with a warning conclusion: although a return to fascism is impossible, nationalism “remains a potentially dangerous radical force.”
MacShane, Denis. “Rise of the Right.” Newsweek [New York, New York] 24 Sept. 2010: n. pag. Web. 21 Oct. 2010.
This article written by Denis MacShane cites an increase in the amount of Parliamentary seats that have been attained by extremist parties in Europe. Among several reasons explained for this trend are concerns over immigration, weak European Union leadership, and a “perceived loss of national identity.” MacShane, however, explains that those who believe that this movement is taking politics to the level of fascism are too alarmist. Ending the article is a recommended solution, suggesting that Europe needs a strong leadership to unite its multiple communities behind a powerful vision.
Meakin, Thomas. “Mussolini’s Fascism.” History Review 59 (2007): 40-44. Print.
In this journal, Thomas Meakin asks “to what extent Italian fascism represented a triumph of style over substance.” In his description of several successful and failed programs put forth by the fascist government, Meakin explains that fascist success was due to its ability to evolve in response to public opinion. After offering several photographs of Mussolini, Meakin concludes that Italian fascism “represented a clear case of style over substance,” citing the large difference between public perception and actual business of the government.
Mussolini, Benito. “The Doctrine of Fascism.” Fascism Doctrine and Institutions. Rome: Ardita Publishers, 1935. 7-42. World Future Fund. Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
This publication, co-written by Giovanni Gentile but credited to Benito Mussolini, is an articulation of Mussolini’s political views. Within the publication are several sub-sections, including “Political and Social Doctrine,” and an Appendix expanding upon several points within the doctrine. Among the many political conclusions made by Mussolini is that the twentieth century is free to depart from the political movements of the nineteenth century (e.g. socialism, liberalism, and democracy), and free to move into an authoritarian culture (e.g. fascism).
- - -. Rome, Italy. 23 Feb. 1941. ibiblio. Web. 21 Oct. 2010.
This speech, delivered by Benito Mussolini to a crowd of his “blackshirts” in Rome, focuses on delivering “facts” about Italy’s involvement in World War II. Within these “facts,” however, Mussolini creates subliminal negative messaging, using disparaging descriptions and terms to make a mockery of the British army and the United States society. The term “facts” can only be loosely applied to this speech, as fascist societies are often built upon lies and violence. Through this speech, Mussolini represents several essential facets of a fascist regime, including the opposition to international law and order, as seen in his praise of war as an ideal, and racism and imperialism, which is noticed in his ethnocentrism.
- - -. “Mussolini Gives His Policies.” Interview by Unknown. SIRS Researcher. N.p., 1 Nov. 1922. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
After questions from an unnamed reporter, Mussolini, shortly after becoming one of the “youngest of the world’s political leaders,” briefly describes his stances on several policy issues. Mussolini presents an ambiguous view of fascism, a view where he values cooperation among classes versus the standard fascist principal of conflict between classes. However, after voicing his concerns for the “welfare of [his] beloved country,” Mussolini suggests that to restore the financial situation of the country his people “must eat less bread.” Several other contradictions can be noted in his interview, as can the presence of several other fascist characteristics in his policy goals.
- - -. “Mussolini’s War Statement.” Rome, Italy. 11 Dec. 1941. ibiblio. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
Mussolini, in this speech given late in his rule during the second World War, speaks of joining “the prepared soldiers” of Japan and the axis powers to fight the “tyrannical democrat” of American and the other allied powers. Mussolini uses rhetoric to his advantage, attempting to convince his people of the advantages held by the axis powers through vivid language. His attempts to rally his people through several cries including “we shall win” suggest fascist influence on his speech, exemplifying the fascist aspects of nationalism and country/race supremacy.
Nixon, Agnes. Mussolini: Italy’s Nightmare. A&E, 1997. Hulu. Web. 21 Oct. 2010.
This video provides a summary of Mussolini’s life and leadership, from his early childhood days to his last years as Italy’s fascist ruler. The documentary pays particular attention to Mussolini and Italy’s involvement in World War II, Mussolini’s relationship with Hitler, Mussolini’s attempt to build Italy’s empire in Africa, and how all of these factors contributed to the eventual decline of Mussolini’s popularity. The video ends on a somewhat warning note, citing the rise of Mussolini’s granddaughter as a fascist leader and a current rise in the popularity of rightist-extreme parties in Europe such as the neofascists.
Parigi, Paolo. E-Mail interview. Dec.-Jan. 2010-2011.
This interview, conducted with Professor Paolo Parigi of Stanford University, discussed three different themes in Italian politics: why Italy is a political laboratory for democracy, the presence of gypsies, and Italy’s fascist past. In discussing these themes, Parigi also provided further areas of research and suggestions as to how the three themes are related to each other.
- - -. E-mail interview. 11 Feb. 2011.
This interview with Paolo Parigi, professor of Sociology at Stanford University, presents Parigi’s argument that fascism cannot be connected to the current treatment of Gypsies in Italy. Although presented with the point that xenophobia is a characteristic shared by both time periods, Parigi maintains that there is no valid connection between the two. Parigi concludes, “if you want to study gypsies in today Italy, I suggest that you drop Fascism from the equation, so to speak,” asserting his claim.
Payne, Stanley G. “Fascism.” World Book Advanced. World Book, 2010, n.d. Web. 9 Sept. 2010. <worldbookonline.com...advanced/article?id=ar192260&st=fascism>.
This entry provides a brief definition of fascism, explains the political, economic, and personal aspects of fascism, and ends with a history of fascism in Germany and Italy. The historical analysis credits the development of modern fascism to Napoleon I of France, who promised to restore the glory of France through military conquest and established a secret police force to prevent opposition. Included in the entry are several pictures of Fascist marches from Italy and Germany during World War II.
Popham, Peter. “Italian Fascism Is Once Again on the Rise.” The Independent [London, England] 6 May 2008: n. pag. SIRS Researcher. Web. 19 Dec. 2010.
In this article, Peter Popham, an acknowledged expert on Italy, uses a recent case of neo-fascist violence to examine the current rise of Italian fascism. Popham notes the distinction between renouncing Italy’s past fascist practices and renouncing the core values of fascism itself, remarking on the presence of the latter in Italian politics. Guido Papalia, who is investigating the attack described by Popham early in the article, explains this presence: “There is a way of thinking which is very widespread these days, which rejects what is different, those who don’t dress like us, don’t eat like us, don’t speak with out accent, in defense of a system that they simply maintain is better than that of others and that therefore must be defended with violence.” “The far right is closer to the heart of power than at any time since the fall of Mussolini,” concludes Popham.
Raffone, Paolo. “Italy’s Post-fascists Bid for Respectability.” Le Monde Diplomatique [Paris, France] May 1998: n. pag. Web. 1 Dec. 2010.
In this article produced in a left-oriented newspaper, Paolo Raffone discusses the development of a “modern right” in Italian politics, one that does not align itself with neo-fascist ideas. The article focuses on the National Alliance, a conservative political party that emerged from the Italian Social Movement (MSI), a party formed by Mussolini supporters. Gianfranco Fini, leader of the National Alliance from 1995 to 2008, is determined to make clear the fact that his party has moved away from its fascist roots. “In comparison with the MSI,” says Fini, “the alliance represents not only an evolution of the right, but a new identity, based on an unequivocal condemnation of all forms of totalitarianism, including that of the fascist period.” “Here,” he insists, “the break with the past is clear.”
Roper, James E. “Mussolini, Mistress Executed by Firing Squad.” SIRS Knowledge Source. N.p., 29 Apr. 1945. Web. 17 Mar. 2011.
This article, written by James E. Roper, describes Mussolini’s execution in the country he once ruled. Although fascist regimes commonly end with murder or death, the graphic treatment of Mussolini’s body after his execution suggests the extent to his people hated him by the end of his regime. Offering no conclusion, the article ends with a quote from an Italian partisan leader about the movement of Mussolini’s body to Italy’s capital.
Sassoon, Donald. “Is Italy Flirting with Fascism?” New Stateman 26 May 2008: 34-36. Print.
In this article published in a British left-wing political magazine, Donald Sassoon argues that although Silvio Burlusconi has gained power on an anti-immigration platform, Italy is not experiencing a return to fascism. Sassoon points to several differences between Fascism and contemporary Italian politics to support his claim, including the fact that there is now competition in politics and personal freedoms. Sassoon does conclude, however, that a fear of “honest government” may prevent progress in Italian politics, and several pictures of anti-immigrant leaders and protests offered by the article suggest the lingering presence of the extreme nationalism that characterized Italy’s fascist government.
Squires, Nick. “Italy Allows Vigilantes for First Time Since Mussolini’s Blackshirts.” The Telegraph 15 May 2009: n. pag. Web. 19 Dec. 2010.
In this article, Nick Squires, the Rome correspondent for “The Telegraph,” explains a new law in Italy that allows “vigilante groups,” many of which have formed in the “northern strongholds of the Right-wing, anti-immigrant Northern League.” The Italian National Guard, one example of these vigilante groups, plans to dress its members in a way that some are accusing of being similar to Mussolini’s blackshirt militia groups. The Democratic Party, which opposes this law, warned that “such groups set a dangerous presence and [hark] back to Italy’s fascist past.” Accusations have brought an angry response from the Italian government, who backs the vigilante groups as a means of controlling crime.
Unknown. “Conditions for the Emergence of Fascism: Political Prerequisites.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. N.p., 1995. Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
This article, published by the Encyclopaedia Britannica, explains the conditions in Italy and Germany after World War I that allowed the emergence of fascism. Among these factors is the oft-discussed “failure of expected gains from the war,” but unlike previous sources, “a fear of Bolshevism” is analyzed. Ending by describing Japan and Hungary’s connection through a fear of Bolshevism, the article suggests this fear may be a strong factor in the emergence of a fascist regime.
- - -. “Ex-dictator ‘Baby Doc’ Duvalier returns to Haiti.” MSNBC. N.p., 17 June 2011. Web. 3 Mar. 2011.
Published on MSNBC’s website, this article analyzes “Baby Doc“ Duvalier’s return to Haiti after years of exile. Baby Doc said “he wanted to help in the rebuilding of his earthquake-battered nation,” a claim that was eerily similar to Mussolini’s promise to modernize Italy after their losses in World War I. Baby Doc’s return, as it is described by this article, shows several similarities to the conditions that allowed Mussolini to rise, suggesting that the conditions may be perfect for a return of Authoritarianism to Haiti and providing a possible contemporary example of Mussolini’s ascension.
- - -. “Italian Fascism: The Rise of Mussolini’s Fascist Government in Italy.” Mount Holyoke University. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
This article, published on Mount Holyoke University’s website, begins by describing the conditions of pre-fascist Italy that facilitated the transition from a democratic to a dictatorial state. Among the factors explained are devastating economic conditions, unfair representation in the Treaty of Versailles, and fear of a Socialist revolution. The article goes on to discuss several actions taken by Mussolini once in office, ending with a description of Mussolini’s ties to Hitler.
- - -. “Mussolini Arrives in Rome for Conference with King.” SIRS Knowledge Source . N.p., 30 Oct. 1922. Web. 17 Mar. 2011.
This article, written by an unknown author, discusses in brief the transition of power from the Italian King to Mussolini. The article goes on to describe the fact that Mussolini refused to compromise with the king, and why he refused to do so. Although coming to no conclusion, the article hints at Mussolini’s radical policies and agendas later in his regime.
- - -. “Mussolini Assumes Power, Forms Cabinet.” SIRS Researcher. N.p., 31 Oct. 1922. Web. 19 Dec. 2010.
This article, published as one of UPI’s 20th century top stories, describes the formation of Mussolini’s cabinet after he took office. “Mussolini formed his cabinet with characteristic bluntness,” explains the article, discussing the manner Mussolini took in creating his cabinet. The article goes on to outline the “general manifesto [that] was sent out to all Fascisti forces, forbidding reprisals of any sort,” offering several excerpts revealing the totalitarian nature of Mussolini’s regime.
- - -. “Mussolini boasted of his racism.” Sydney Morning Herald [Sydney ] 20 Nov. 2009 : n. pag. Sydney Morning Herald . Web. 3 Mar. 2011.
This article, written by an unnamed author, provides another view on the recent revelation of Mussolini’s racist tendencies. Rather than showing that Mussolini thought of his racism as not influenced by Hitler’s, the author argues that Mussolini thought of his racism to be distinctly Italian and, possibly, superior to Hitler’s. With no conclusion, the author leaves his assertion open to further debate.
- - -. “Not just Hitler’s fool.” The Economist 19 Nov. 2009: n. pag. The Economist . Web. 21 Feb. 2011.
This interview, published in “The Economist,” describes findings in the diary of Clara Petacci, Mussolini’s mistress (a picture of her is located early in the article). In this diary, it was found that Mussolini was a strong anti-Semite, reversing the view held by many Italians that Mussolini was heavily influenced by Hitler. “People have always assumed the racial laws were a political instrument; not part of a policy in which he sincerely believed. This would suggest quite the opposite,” concludes Paul Corner, a professor of European history at the University of Siena.
- - -. “Philosophical Bases of Fascism.” Encyclopaedia Britannica. N.p., 1995. Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
This article from the Encyclopaedia Britannica describes the philosophical aspects of Mussolini’s fascist movement, contrasting it to the revolutionary movements in America and France. The revival of the ancient city-state, this article explains, replaced the emphasis on civil liberties in the aforementioned revolutions. The article concludes by connecting these philosophical characteristics to the inevitable return of an authoritarian order.
- - -. “Plight of the Roma: echoes of Mussolini.” The Independent [London ] 27 June 2008: n. pag. The Independent . Web. 3 Mar. 2011.
This article, published in Britain’s “The Independent,” offers another perspective on the issue of Italy and the treatment of Gypsies. In the article, an unknown author asserts that despite what the government says, Italy is not experiencing a “security emergency.” The author goes on to draw similarities between Mussolini’s regime and this contemporary behavior, stating his belief that “the campaign [against gypsies] has a strong whiff of Mussolini and Hitler about it.” Closing with a chilling warning, the article reminds one of the concentrations camps established by Hitler to deal with the “security emergency” of his time.
Whisker, James B. “Italian Fascism: An Interpretation .” The Journal for Historical Review 4.1 (1983): 5. Web. 24 Jan. 2011.
Whittam, John. “The Origins of Fascism.” New Perspective 3.3 (1998): n. pag. Print.
In this entry, Dr. John Whittam of the University of Bristol discusses the origins of fascism and the preconditions that allowed its rise. Five major factors are described in detail, including (1) new liberal ideas, (2) confusion from industrialization, (3) developments in radio and cinema, (4) new political parties formed to combat changes, and (5) World War I. Reaching no definite conclusion, Whittam leaves the entry open for further discussion, suggesting that other factors may have facilitated Mussolini’s rise.
Woodley, Daniel. Fascism and Political Theory: Critical Perspectives on Fascist Ideology. New York, New York: Routledge , 2010. 49-76. Google Book Search. Web. 30 Sept. 2010.
Daniel Woodley, a PhD in political sociology from the University of Essex, opens this section of the book by asking the basic question of fascism in regards to class: “to what extent is fascism linked to social-structural modernization, and to what extent is fascist ideology linked to the material interests of specific socioeconomic groups?” After a series of explanations and charts used to support these explanations, Woodley goes on to conclude that fascism is a social movement of the lower-middle class with the aim of restoring prestige and power to this stratum, and that fascism appeals to member of the middle class who think they have no economic standing.